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摘要：This study examined whether late-learning English-German second language (L2) learners and late-learning German-English L2 learners use prosodic cues to disambiguate temporarily ambiguous first language and L2 sentences during speech production. Experiments 1a and 1b showed that English-German L2 learners and German-English L2 learners used a pitch rise and pitch accent to disambiguate PP-attachment sentences in German. However, the same participants, as well as monolingual English speakers, only used pitch accent to disambiguate similar English sentences. Taken together, these results indicate the L2 learners used prosody to disambiguate sentences in both of their languages and did not fully transfer cues to disambiguation from their first language to their L2. The results have implications for the acquisition of L2 prosody and the interaction between prosody and meaning in L2 production. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This paper explores whether English-Mandarin bilingual children have mastered discourse skills and whether they show sensitivity to the discourse principle of information status of referents in their speech and gestures. We compare the speech and gestures produced by bilingual children to those produced by English- and Mandarin-speaking monolingual children. Six English-speaking and six Mandarin-speaking monolingual children, and nine English-Mandarin bilingual children (who were more dominant in English) were videotaped while interacting with their caregivers. Monolingual Mandarin- and English-speaking children produced null arguments and pronouns respectively to indicate given third-person referents, and nouns to indicate new third-person referents. They also gestured new third-person referents more often than given third-person referents. Thus, monolinguals' speech and gestures followed the discourse principle. English-Mandarin bilingual children's speech and gestures also followed the discourse principle but only when they were speaking in English. They produced nouns more often to indicate given third-person referents than to indicate new third-person referents in Mandarin, indicating the violation of the discourse principle. It is interesting that they gestured new third-person referents more often than given third-person referents in Mandarin. Thus, our findings suggest that gesture precedes language development at discourse level in the less-dominant language in bilinguals. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Bilinguals often face the challenge of negotiating a range of insider/outsider subject positions when interacting in transnational and intercultural settings. This article takes up the concept of symbolic competence, the awareness of socially situated symbolic resources and the ability to use them to shape interactional contexts, to examine how the author, a Swedish-English bilingual, manages this negotiation. Drawing on principles of the ethnography of communication in concert with the complementary discourse analytic perspective of nexus analysis, ethnographic vignettes are analyzed to explore strategic language choices the author made during specific speech situations in Sweden. It is shown that the concealment of linguistic abilities, or covert bilingualism, served as a resource to support the symbolic competence needed to facilitate the presentation of self during social encounters while mitigating the ambiguity of being simultaneously insider and outsider. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This Forum challenges the generally accepted position in the linguistic sciences -- conscious or not -- that monolingualism and nativeness are essentially synonymous in an exclusive way. We discuss two consequences of our position that naturalistic bilinguals and multilinguals exposed to a language in early childhood are also native speakers: (i) that bi-/multilinguals have multiple native languages; and (ii) nativeness can be applicable to a state of linguistic knowledge that is characterized by significant differences to the monolingual baseline. Adapted from the source document

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摘要：In the process of language learning, individuals must acquire different types of linguistic knowledge, such as the sounds of the language (phonemes), how these may be combined to form words (phonotactics), and morphological rules. Early and late bilinguals tend to perform like natives on second language phonological tasks that involve pre-lexical processes (e.g., categorization or identification of isolate phonemes) but their performance decreases when the tasks tap into lexical processes (e.g., accessing to the lexicon storage and selecting the appropriate words). This graded performance across phonological processes is consistent with the processing hierarchy proposed by different models of (native) speech perception. The relation between the first and second languages is further evidenced by the correlation between native and non-native phoneme discrimination of both early and late bilinguals. This correlation provides evidence that individual differences in the command of non-native sounds are caused by a language-specific capability. We propose that the study of second language processes combined with the assessment of individual differences is a relevant field for the understanding of the speech perception architecture. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The aim of this study was to use crosslinguistic data from French-English bilinguals to test two models of past tense acquisition: (a) single route (all past tense forms rely on morphophonological schemas) and (b) dual route (irregular forms are learned as words, regulars through rules). These models make similar predictions about English acquisition, the focus of most previous research. French irregular verbs are often low in token frequency but high in family resemblance. Past tense forms of regular and irregular verbs in English and French were elicited from children between 3 and 5 years of age. Both models could explain most results. Two findings with French were more compatible with a single-route model, suggesting that this is a stronger explanation for crosslinguistic data. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Text comprehension models in first and second language reading research posit that slow word recognition inhibits reading speed and decreases comprehension. To investigate the role of word recognition in reading, 2 experiments examined rereading benefits in participants' first and second languages using scrambled and normal versions of English and Spanish texts. Native English speakers with intermediate (Experiment 1) or advanced (Experiment 2) Spanish skills demonstrated word- and text-level transfer in both English and Spanish. However, advanced Spanish readers did not exhibit word-level transfer when reading simple Spanish texts. These results suggest that fluent reading may be strongly influenced not just by word recognition, but also by text difficulty relative to reader skill, as well as other factors. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Because of less exposure to either language, bilingual children's language acquisition can be delayed relative to monolingual children in domains related to input frequency. This study predicted that the acquisition of gender agreement with adjectives in French would be delayed in bilingual children on a picture description task. The results showed that French-English bilingual preschoolers were less accurate with feminine noun-adjective agreement than monolinguals, a difference attributable to the differences in vocabulary scores, but not significantly less accurate with feminine determiner-adjective agreement. The bilinguals were significantly less accurate with determiner-noun agreement, a difference not attributable to vocabulary score differences. We argue that fewer input tokens lead to delayed gender agreement and fewer input types lead to delayed gender assignment.